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Pre
Colombian History
For 12,000 years Ecuador has been home to
various civilizations. Early cultures celebrated the history of
their forefathers through songs, dances, and story telling. Oral
history was an important part of religious ceremonies. Little
of this history remains today. The Spanish forcefully converted
the indigenous culture to Catholicism, religious ceremonies were
abandoned and many of the stories forgotten. The tales that endured
are of the Inca's who arrived in Ecuador shortly before the Spanish.
Information about earlier cultures is attributed
to the archeological treasures discovered throughout the country.
Ecuador is a young country archeologically speaking, the importance
of unearthing and preserving ruins does not have the enthusiastic
support of the country and scientists as in Mexico, Peru, Egypt
or Turkey. Many of the country's ruins remain buried, left simply
as a mysterious symbol of an earlier culture. One can only imagine
what has left to be discovered. Opportunities to learn about Pre-Colombian
cultures include the well-preserved ruins in Machalilla and Ingapirca
or visiting one of the excellent museums housing a collections
of art work and tools.
The first known culture of Ecuador is the
Las Vegas, a group of hunters and gathers who lived on the Santa
Elena Peninsula between the Guavas Basin and Salinas. Living in
houses and making textiles they enjoyed a varied economy and they
existed by farming crops including maize and squash, hunting, and
exploiting the mangroves for wood, oysters and other seafood.
The museum "Museo de los Amantes de Sumpa" near Santa
Elena houses displays of the Las Vegas and tells the story of their
culture.
The Valdivias are the earliest culture where
significant remains have been discovered. Their culture existed
along the central coast around 3500 BC (a few hundred years ahead
of the Bronze Age and the Old Kingdom of Egypt). Their cities
and villages were circular shaped featuring a raised central plaza
paved with shells. Surrounding the plaza were houses and community
buildings constructed of wood and straw. Their extensive diet
of beans, maize, pumpkin, fish, shellfish, birds, rodents, reptiles,
and armadillos was obtained by farming, fishing and hunting.
The Valdivias were the first Americans to
use pottery. They created bowls, jars and female statues out of
clay both for everyday life and for use in religious ceremonies. They
navigated the seas on rafts with sails and established a trade network
with tribes in the Andes and the Amazon. One of their main
items of trade was the red shell of the thorny oyster called Spondylus.
The red shell was made into ornaments, which were more valuable
than gold or silver. The traditional Otavalo bracelets were
made from these shells. Valdivia art has been found throughout
the country and an extensive collection is on display at the Museo
Banco Central in Quito.
The early cultures were quite advanced.
By 600 BC trade routes connected Ecuador with Chile to the south
and with Mexico to the north. Cities were designed with streets
and drainage areas. Labor became specialized and shops existed.
By 300 BC alloys of gold and platinum were created a practice which
did not catch on in Europe until the 19th century.
By the 15th century the cultures had organized
into ethnic populations. Various cities existed throughout the country
and agriculture was the main product. The Incas arrived in
the late part of the century to conquer the local tribes and incorporate
the area into their kingdom. The story of the Incas is one of the
few that has survived the test of time.
In 1463 Topa, son of the Pachacuti Inca Yapangui,
a fierce warrior, marched on the Sierras of Ecuador. He fought
the tribes and defeated some including the Quitus (the people of
modern day Quito and for whom the city is named). He continued
his march heading southwest to the coast. Once there he decided
to set off on a great ocean voyage. Stories say he sailed
either to the Galapagos or the Marquesas Islands. Eventually he
returned to Ecuador to continue his efforts of subjugating the Ecuadorians
living near the Gulf of Guayaquil and the Island of Puna.
Huayna Capac Topa's son with a Cañari princess
(the people from modern day Cuenca), was finally able to conquer
the remaining tribes around 1500 and incorporate Ecuador into the
Incan Empire. During his reign the Inca Empire reached its greatest
extent stretching from Ecuador to Chile.
A few aspects of life were unchanged by the
Incas the local people continued practicing traditional religions
and farming continued as their main subsistence. But there
were dramatic changes, too. The Incas introduced the new crops of
yucca, sweet potatoes, coca and peanuts and the use of irrigation
and llamas was increased considerably. Previously land had
been owned privately, under the new laws land was held collectively
by the community. Families were granted a small plot of land
to grow food for their own consumption. The majority of the land
was owned by the state and clergy and worked by the subjects.
If the local people opposed the laws, the emperor simply relocated
large parts of the local population to another area in the empire
and replaced them with colonists.
Huayna Capac grew up in Ecuador and loved
the land. He named Quito the second Inca capital. A
road was built to connect the two capitals of Quito and Cusco.
Cities and temples were built throughout the country. He married
a Quitu princess and remained in the country until his death. When
he died unexpectedly before naming an heir it caused turmoil throughout
the empire.
Two of his sons sought the throne.
Huáscar born of his sister in Cusco the legitimate heir and
Atahualpa, born in Quito and the favorite son. The brothers battled
for 6 years killing many men and weakening the empire. Finally
in 1532 near Chimborazo Atahualpa with aid of two of his father's
generals defeated his brother. Huáscar was captured and put
in prison. Atahualpa became emperor only to face some unwelcome
visitors a few months later.
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The
Conquest
It was the 1520's in Panama, the Pacific Ocean had just been discovered.
Opportunities abound and many men were acquiring considerable wealth.
Francisco Pizarro, a Spanish conquistador in is mid-40's, heard
a story of an El Dorado the king incredibly wealthy southern city
full of gold. He decided to seek the fortune by leading two
expeditions down the coast of South America in search of El Dorado.
Along the coast he encountered some Incas whose gold adornments,
convinced him the fabled kingdom existed. Francisco returned
to Spain to secure the king's authority to conquer the land and
become its new governor.
In 1532 Francisco and his small army returned to South America
from Spain. He came up with a plot to find his riches.
In Cajamarca a town in northern Peru, Francisco invited Atahualpa,
the Emperor of the Incas, and his nobles to a feast.
A thousand Incas arrived excited to meet their new visitors whom
they thought were gods. Francisco's army, fewer
than 200 men, lay in wait and surrounded their unarmed guests.
Francisco asked Atahualpa if he would accept the rule of the Spanish
Crown and the faith of the Christian Gods. Atahualpa and the
Incas refused. The army using swords, horses and cannons seized
the guests and they killed most of the Inca leaders within 30 minutes.
The Emperor was left alive and held for ransom. The Inca
offerings came from all over the kingdom and quickly filling one
room with gold and two more with silver the rooms paying the equivalent
to $100 million in today's money. Though ransom was paid, Francisco
decided to betray them. He set up a trial where Atahualpa was convicted
of crimes including polygamy, the worshiping of false gods and crimes
against the king. The Conquistadors baptized Atahualpa and
executed him on August 29, 1533.
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The Early Years
Within a year of the Emperor's death Francisco had defeated the
Incas and controlled the empire from Ecuador to Chile.
Though he had amassed considerable wealth and territory the elusive
El Dorado still evaded him. According to legends the mythological
chief would attend yearly festivals his body covered head to
toe in gold dust and would go into a local lake with offerings of
gold and emeralds. Much as Ponce de Leon believed and sought
of the Fountain of Youth, Francisco believed the stories of El Dorado
and was determined to find him.
Expeditions were sent out at great expense to find the kingdom.
The most famous of these began on Christmas day 1539. Gonzalo,
Francisco's brother and his second in command Francisco de Orellana,
the founder of Guayaquil, led an expedition of almost 4,500 soldiers,
native slaves and countless animals to the headwaters of the Amazon.
Their party reached the banks of the Rio Napo hungry, and diminished
in size from the freezing cold temperatures crossing the Andes and
from battles with the local villages. Their supplies were depleted
and they were forced to live off the land. Orellana and Gonzalo
decided to part company. Gonzalo, blaming the failed expedition
on his guides fed half of them to the dogs and burning the remainder.
Orellana and a small crew of soldiers constructed a raft and set
afloat downstream searching for food and signs of riches. The
current quickly took the boat to the Amazon where he decided to
push on and continue their journey. For eight months Orellana and
his men encountered a various tribes along the river. One of these
groups, his stories told, were a group of tall women warriors with
white skin and braided hair similar to those of Greek mythology
and thus giving the river its name. They finally reached the
Atlantic Ocean in August 1541.
Gonzalo returned to Quito and on December 1, 1540 his brother,
acting in the name of the Spanish Crown, named him first governor
of the "Real Audiencia de Quito" (modern day Ecuador)
a department under the Viceroy of Peru. Soon after the appointment
Francisco was murdered. The Viceroy and conquistadors began
a reign of terror. Gonzalo opposed the new laws and headed
a rebellion against Spain and the abuses. The revolt was successful
until April 9, 1548 when the Spanish loyalists defeated the rebels
and beheaded Gonzalo.
The Spanish maintained strict control and had authority over Ecuador
for 250 years. The Spanish laws, customs and ideas were introduced
to the locals who began to mix the old traditions with the new.
The Quitenian School of Art was born reflecting the fusion between
cultures. The Christian art shows the religious figures emerged
in pre-colonial traditions including a picture of the last supper
with Cuy (Guinea Pig) served as the main dish. This artwork
is present today and can be viewed in the religious architecture,
sculptures, and paintings created during the sixteenth, seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries around the country.
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The War for Independence
Ecuador became a major seaport for the west coast of South America. Sailors
bought and sold goods and with them brought news of the world and
new ideas. As the 19th century began the idea "Liberalism"
took roots among the colonists. The people were no longer happy
being a colony working for Spain. They wanted freedom. Simon
Bolivar emerged as a leader guiding them down the path to independence.
He dreamed of creating an independent and United Spanish America.
On August 10th, 1809 Quito became "The Luz de America",
the first place to declare independence from Spain. One of Bolivar's
generals and statesmen Antonio Jose de Sucre led the country's fight.
For 13 long years the war continued as Sucre led the troops into
battle against the Spanish Royalist Army. At the foothills
of Pichincha, the volcano overlooking the capital city, victory
was finally secured. Sucre and his men defeated the Spanish,
the country was free and would become part of the Federation of
Gran Colombia.
Bolivar assumed control as dictator of the new federation.
To fulfill his dream, uphold independence, and unite the federation
he initiated a series of Inter-American conferences in 1926 to discuss
their common problems and find solutions. The conferences did
not lesson the problems or ease the fighting between factions. Finally
on April 27, 1830 Bolivar relinquished his power, the countries
separated and within a few months died defeated and disillusioned.
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The Republic of Ecuador
General Juan Jose Flores moved from Venezuela to Ecuador with Bolivar's
army. In the fight for independence he became a national hero. Though
he came from humble beginnings and had little education his life
in Ecuador was privileged. He married a member of the Quito
aristocracy, was accepted into the upper class of Sierra landowners
and served as Governor while Ecuador was part of Gran Colombia.
Juan Jose was merciless in his pursuit of power and personal gain.
His main political rival was General Antonio Jose de Sucre, victor
of the Battle of Pichincha. Antonio had been living in retirement
in Quito, when he was asked to serve as president of the Congress
to reunite Gran Colombia. When the congress failed Gran Colombia
was dissolved and Antonio headed home to Quito. Juan Jose
was 30 years old, but he knew what he wanted and acted quickly.
First he sent assassins to kill Antonio then he called an assembly
to declare the Republic of Ecuador a new nation and himself the
first president.
Simon Bolívar words shortly before his death would illustrate
the Republic of Ecuador. "America is ungovernable. Those
who have served the revolution have plowed the sea."
The country was divided into two factions the Sierra's wealthy landowners
and the coastal merchants. The differences were not limited to geography.
The contrasts in economics and social attitudes created the rift
in the country. The Sierra conservative hacienda owners' lived in
the valleys of the Andes mountains isolated from the outside
world. Their economic interests were dominated by the need for strict
management of the native labor. They were devout followers of the
Catholic Church and supported church sponsored religious education
for all. In contrast the coastal people were liberals who
favored free enterprise, development of agricultural exports and
other trades. They were opposed to the church's involvement
in state matters.
Tensions grew between factions and civil war broke out. Each
side wanted a president who reflected their politics. Unable
to decide on one leader the country reached a compromise whereby
the presidency would alternate between Juan Jose (the conservative
choice) and Vicente Rocafuerte (the liberal choice).
Vicente served as President between 1835-1839 promoting civil liberties
and establishing public schools. Juan Jose controlled the army
and maintained a great amount of power from behind the scenes.
Juan Jose returned to office in 1839, his goals were the building
a strong military and securing power for himself. Vicente returned
to Guayaquil as provincial governor awaiting his next term. Despite
the earlier agreement Juan Jose drafted an amendment to the constitution
permitting him to retain the presidency in 1843.
Vicente was exiled to Peru and the country fell into the hands
of Juan Jose and his fellow Venezuelan and Colombian soldiers. A
young student, Gabriel Garcia Moreno, attempted to assassinate Juan
Jose as discontent spread throughout the nation. Eventually
the coastal liberals revolted and forced Juan Jose into exile. But
even exile did not curb his hunger for power. For 15 years the country
struggled with his attempts to overthrow the government from abroad.
Those years became some of the country's most turbulent and conflicts
grew. Several regions seceded from the central government.
Ecuador looked like it was about to come to an end.
But even during this time of turmoil there were positive changes.
Life for the indigenous population had worsened since the country
gained independence from Spain. During these years the first
laws were passed benefiting these people. Ecuador's slaves
were liberated and the three centuries of required "tribute"
payments were ended.
In 1859 when the southern provinces of Ecuador had been ceded to
Peru a dramatic change was required to save the country. A
strong leader was needed and Gabriel Garcia Moreno became that leader.
He mended his differences with Juan Jose (who he had tried to kill
years earlier), forced the Peruvians out and began uniting the country.
Gabriel was from a modest family in Guayaquil. He moved to
Quito for school and married one of the local élites. In
1848 after the revolt which banished Juan Jose he left Ecuador to
study theology in Europe. Those years in Europe would have a lasting
effect on both him and Ecuador.
Gabriel's presidency was depicted by historian Frederick B Pike
as: "His personal experiences seem to haveinfluenced his attitudes
toward governing his country. In his own case, liberalism and religious
indifference had gone hand-in- hand with personal debauchery and
lack of self-control, while religious fervor had been intertwined
with a life of rigorous self-control and Spartan discipline. After
coming to the presidency, García Moreno set out to rekindle
religious fervor among Ecuadorians in the expectation that the entire
country could be made to undergo a transformation paralleling his
own."
One of the most controversial figures in Ecuador's history, Gabriel
is considered by liberals as history's worst tyrant while conservatives
consider him a great "nation-builder". He relied
on the Catholic Church to unite the country starting a period of
conservatism. Education and social welfare became the church's
domain, Catholicism the exclusive religion and citizenship
became dependent on the adherence to Roman Catholic doctrine.
The liberals opposed these new laws and in 1864 they set out to
rid the country of Gabriel. Juan Jose once again came to Gabriel's
aid and the revolution was squashed. The handling of political
enemies was ruthless, Gabriel would kill anyone who tried to get
in his way. Like Juan Jose he wanted to retain power. He would
select his successors only to remove them from office.
Gabriel's presidency inaugurated many public works projects and
artistic endeavors. New schools from primary to polytechnic
training were built. Construction of the Quito-Guayaquil railroad
began giving the Sierra's access with the rest of the world. Roads,
schools and hospitals were built throughout the country and eucalyptus
trees were planted to alleviate erosion. Ecuador flourished economically
primarily due to cocoa exports which grew from approximately $1
million to $10 million dollars annually.
Not long after Gabriel's third term his presidency was abruptly
ended when he was hacked to death by a machete on the steps of the
presidential palace. Gabriel's most outspoken critic, journalist
Juan Montalvo took credit stating "My pen killed him".
Today a plaque hangs on the wall of the palace memorializing the
where Gabriel died.
For the next 20 years the conservatives retained the presidency.
But agriculture exports were based near Guayaquil and political
power and money grew for the liberals. By the 1890's the political
tide had changed. Ecuador grew tired of restrictive conservative
policies and corruption.
The conservative government was overthrown and Eloy Alfaro emerged
as the liberal leader. Eloy was as liberal as Gabriel's had
been conservative. He wanted to reduce the church's power,
encourage capitalist development and enter Ecuador into the Modern
Age.
New laws confiscated the church's land, permitted civil marriages
and divorces, created land reforms, increased native rights, abolished
capital punishment, and encouraged non-religious education. He
created an infrastructure to deliver products to the rest of the
world by improving foreign relations with the United States and
other countries, constructing ports and completing the Quito-Guayaquil
railroad.
The only thing needed to complete his plan was profitable products
to export but without those products the country considered his
works useless. Eloy lost popularity and the presidency after
his second term. Like others before him he refused to step
down and was forcibly removed from office and exiled to Panama.
His successor died 4 months later and Eloy returned to regain power.
His homecoming was not well received he was hung, torn apart, and
burned in a public ceremony.
Political turmoil and the desire for a global economy have portrayed
Ecuador's history. There have been 86 changes in government since
becoming a republic, each regime averaging a 1.75 years. Because
of the instability the government has had little opportunity to
mature and reflect populace opinions. In the 17 years between
1931 and 1948 none of the nation's 21 presidents successfully completed
term.
There were other problems for the country as well. In 1941, war
broke out between Ecuador and Peru over a long existing territorial
dispute in the Oriente. Ecuador claimed rights to the region because
the initial expedition of the Amazon River was launched from Quito.
However, Ecuador was under the Viceroy of Peru, Peru felt the area
was rightfully theirs. The disputed area, almost twice the size
of present day Ecuador, was rich in coffee, gold and oil. In 1942
during Peru's occupation of the territory Ecuador was compelled
to sign the Protocol of Rio de Janeiro giving the land to Peru.
To Ecuador the dispute was not settled and skirmishes continued
until 1998 when a peace treaty was finally signed.
In the early part of the 20th century Ecuador's economy relied
heavily on agricultural and fishing exports. During the 1960's
foreigners began to export oil from the Amazon region. The
country would become a major exporter of oil in the 1970's and economic
prosperity began. The world "oil crisis" in the early
part of the decade finally gave Ecuador a place in the global economy.
Today oil contributes over 1/3 of the country's exports.
Extracting oil has brought new problems, the cost of the new economy
has been the rainforest's wildlife and the environment. Ecologists
and the indigenous people of the Amazon region oppose the exploitation
and want the government to return the traditional lands and the
clean up of the rainforest.
In 1978 a new constitution was passed and the following year Ecuador
returned to democracy. This return has not changed the major problems
for the country the economy, political instability and corruption.
The last three presidencies typify the challenges the country needs
to overcome in order to prosper in the future.
Sixto Duran's (1992-96) quickly lost popularity after his election. His
economic modernization plan cut government spending and public sector
jobs putting many Ecuadorians out of work. His Development Law met
harsh opposition from the CONAIE and other indigenous people of
the Oriente. The law allowed for the commercialization of indigenous
lands for farming and mineral extraction (primarily oil). The people
of the Oriente created such pressure that the law was modified a
month later protecting the landowners' rights. In 1995 the
country renewed fighting with Peru in the Oriente. Though
a cease fire was signed, tensions grew when in 1996 the government
purchased new jet fighters from Israel. Serious economic problems
plagued the country and it could not afford the war. The expenses
of the conflict combined with electricity rationing caused by the
lack of hydroelectric power sent the country into yet another economic
spiral. The country finally lost all confidence in their president
when a huge corruption scandal was revealed. The Vice president
fled to Costa Rica and 23 ministers were either impeached or resigned.
The citizens called for the president's resignation. Today
graffiti throughout the country still depict Sixto Duran as a traitor.
The country's distrust of Duran and the established government
led to the election of the "anti-establishment" president
Abdala Bucharam (1996-97) known as "El Loco". El
Loco held office for less than 6 months. Increases in gas, telephone
and electricity taxes led to a 300% rise in utility prices in 1996.
He passed labor reforms allowing for the easier dismissal
of employees, which infuriated labor unions. By January 1997
there were reports of wide-spread corruption and violent protests
began. That February Congress declared him mentally unfit
(Loco) and removed him from office. Bucharam refused to leave
and barricaded himself inside the presidential palace. The
military withdrew support forcing him to flee the country for
Panama where he still lives in exile.
An interim president Fabian Alcaron (1997-98) replaced him. Fabian
is currently awaiting trial. Allegations came to light that
while serving as president of congress he authorized the hiring
of numerous people by the government who did not serve any function.
The allegations state that the jobs and salaries were political
paybacks.
Ecuador's future lies in the hands of Jamil Mahuad elected president
in August 1998. Jamil's goals are to solve the country's economic
problems and put an end to governmental corruption. His economic
reforms are based on re-negotiating Ecuador's foreign debt and stabilizing
the Sucre. Since taking office he has signed a peace treaty with
Peru putting an end to the 57-year old conflict. Jamil has much
work to do to bring the country into the next millennium.
We can only hope that his vision will improve the conditions of
the country while maintaining its charm.
Ecuador's history contributes to its national pride and its unique
flavor. Circumstances, which might be overwhelming to people of
other countries, are mere challenges requiring patience in Ecuador.
Ecuadorians have prevailed as peaceful, friendly people. Their
varied backgrounds and views are put aside to defend the republic
and meet challenges as a united country.
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